The Many Lives of Ali ibn Abi Talib

Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, is respected by all Muslims. He was among the earliest Meccans to convert to Islam and was one of the four Rightly Guided (Rashidun) caliphs of the new Muslim state. At the same time, he is also seen as a controversial figure whose leadership as caliph led to divisions in Islam, notably, between Sunnism, the majority, and Shiʿism, a heterodox, minority movement. How is it possible that one and the same person is seen in such a contradictory way? Two recent publications — the biography of Ali by Hassan Abbas (The Prophet’s Heir: The Life of Ali ibn Abi Talib. Yale University Press, 2021 https://yalebooks.co.uk/book/9780300229455/the-prophets-heir/) and Tahera Qutbuddin’s study of a collection of Ali’s speeches known as Path of Eloquence (Tahera Qutbuddin Nahj al-Balāgha. The Wisdom and Eloquence of Ali. Brill 2024 https://brill.com/display/title/69007 ) — shed light on this phenomenon while highlighting how Ali unites rather than divides Muslims.

Loyal supporter of the Prophet

Ali ibn Abi Talib, like the Prophet himself, was a member of the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe that controlled Mecca on the eve of Islam. Because Muhammad was early orphaned, he was brought up in the family of Ali’s father. This meant that the two men had a close, brotherly connection from early on. When in 610 Muhammad received his first revelations, Ali was among the first converts to the new religion, Islam. The link between the Prophet and his cousin was further strengthened when Ali married the Prophet’s daughter, Fatima. During the years of opposition between the Meccans and Muhammad’s supporters, Ali proved himself a staunch supporter of the Prophet, a man of military skill and courage, known for his virtues. It is for this reason that he became known as ‘Lion’, the archetype of a Muslim knight and his legendary strength became the subject of artworks.

Khalili Collection Islamic Art mss 0979 fol 34b (1610-1630).  [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0979_fol_34b.jpg]

Caliph

After the death of the Prophet, Ali was seen as a good candidate for leadership in the Muslim community. He was, after all, one of the oldest supporters of the Prophet, a member of the Prophet’s family, married to his daughter Fatima, and a famed military commander. Moreover, Muhammad named Ali his heir at Ghadir Khumm, near Mecca, in 632. This was, however, contested. While most Muslim historians agree that the event took place and had the meaning of an appointment, subsequent events resulted in Ali waiting for twenty years before he became caliph. In 656, Ali finally ascended to rulership. The circumstances of this event were, however, inauspicious: earlier that year the third caliph Uthman had been murdered. It was a difficult time for the Muslim state, a time of competition between Ali and the relatives of Uthman, the Umayyads.

The founder of Shiism?

The years following Ali’s ascendancy to the caliphate are remembered in Muslim history as the years of fitna, division, and are described as the first civil war in Islam. During this time of Shiism, a movement supporting the right of Ali and his descendants to leadership in the Muslim community, started to take shape. The question remains, however, to what extent Ali himself contributed or encouraged this division in Islam. A more charitable reading of his actions is that he was seeking the opposite — ways to maintain the unity of the Muslim community and the Muslim state. However, his attempts failed, and in 661 Ali was assassinated in the mosque of Kufa, only four years after assuming political leadership of the caliphate.

Kufa Mosque. [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kufa_Mosque_1.jpg ]

Eloquence and Sufism

Ali’s career as caliph tends to overshadow his previous life and contribution. As a result, he may come across as a divisive figure. However, he is better remembered as a revered Muslim saint, equally important to Sunnis and Shiʿis. Two elements in his biography contribute to this image. One is Ali’s deep spiritual knowledge. It was undisputed in the young Muslim community that Ali was one of the most knowledgeable people about Islam. He was the man to whom the Prophet had revealed the deeper meaning of every Qur’anic verse. This special link to God and the Prophet made ʿAli an important saintly figure in Sufism, Islam’s mystical movement that cuts across the Shiʿi-Sunni divide. Hassan Abbas’s biography of Ali is eloquently arguing in favor of reviewing our understanding of Ali as a person through this lens.

Ali’s deep knowledge of scripture was coupled with an incomparable skill for eloquence. The collection of his speeches known as The Path of Eloquence (Nahj al-Balagha) is a part of his legacy that is equally respected by Sunnis and Shiʿis. This work is best viewed as the golden standard of Arabic rhetorical art. Learners of Arabic across the world, regardless of religious affiliation, study it and learn to appreciate its clear, laconic style and vivid imagery. Taher Qutbuddin’s clear and modern translation paired with a polished edition of this important work finally makes this text available to a Western audience.

Despite the shared respect for large parts of Ali’s legacy, the memory of this early Muslim figure continues to be contested. Today, when sectarian divisions seem stronger than ever, it appears urgent to recognize Ali’s contribution to Muslim unity and learn from it. The works of Hassan Abbas and Tahera Qutbuddin make an important step in making this shared legacy better known to Western readers.

Ekaterina (Kate) Pukhovaia is Assistant Professor in the Islam & Arabic Program at the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Utrecht University.

Illustration: Khalili Collection Islamic Art mss 0979 fol 34b